In recent years, the contribution of exosomes to immunity, inflammation and host-pathogen interaction have been appreciated. Exosomes are small secreted extracellular vesicles from endosomal origin that contain a myriad of cellular molecules (protein, nucleic acids), including surface receptors. We have reported a pathogen-induced and macroautophagy/autophagy-dependent class of exosomes coined as "defensosomes", which protect the host from membrane-targeting toxins. In a recent study, we found that defensosomes decorated with ACE2, the SARS-CoV-2 cellular receptor, are produced in the lungs of patients with COVID-19, and that increased concentration of ACE2-loaded defensosomes is associated with decreased hospitalization length. Mechanistically, SARS-CoV-2 induces the production of ACE2-coated defensosomes, a process requiring the autophagy machinery, which in turn binds and neutralizes the virus. We propose that defensosomes represent a new form of autophagy-mediated innate immunity that contributes to the host's armamentarium against pathogens.
Keywords: ATG16L1; COVID-19; SARS-CoV-2; defensosomes; extracellular vesicles; innate immunity; staphylococcus aureus; toll-like receptor.