Untreated wastewater is routinely used for agricultural activities in water-stressed regions, thereby causing severe ecological risks by various pollutants. Hence, management strategies are needed to cope with the environmental issues related to wastewater use in agriculture. This pot study evaluates the effect of mixing either freshwater (FW) or groundwater (GW) with sewage water (SW) on the buildup of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in soil and maize crop. Results revealed that SW of Vehari contains high levels of Cd (0.08 mg L-1) and Cr (2.3 mg L-1). Mixing of FW and GW with SW increased soil contents of As (22%) and decreased Cd (1%), Cu (1%), Fe (3%), Mn (9%), Ni (9%), Pb (10%), and Zn (4%) than SW "alone" treatment. Risk indices showed high-degree of soil-contamination and very-high ecological risks. Maize accumulated considerable concentrations of PTEs in roots and shoot with bioconcentration factor > 1 for Cd, Cu, and Pb and transfer factor > 1 for As, Fe, Mn, and Ni. Overall, mixed treatments increased plant contents of As (118%), Cu (7%), Mn (8%), Ni (55%), and Zn (1%), while decreased those of Cd (7%), Fe (5%), and Pb (1%) compared to SW "alone" treatments. Risk indices predicted possible carcinogenic risks to cow (CR 0.003 > 0.0001) and sheep (CR 0.0121 > 0.0001) due to consumption of maize fodder containing PTEs. Hence, to minimize possible environmental/health hazards, mixing of FW and GW with SW can be an effective strategy. However, the recommendation greatly depends on the composition of mixing waters.
Keywords: Animal risk assessment; Ecological risks; Maize; Municipal sewage water; PTEs; SDG goal 7.
© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG.