Human norovirus (HuNoV) is the main cause of gastroenteritis worldwide, yet no therapeutics are currently available. Here, we utilize a human norovirus replicon in human gastric tumor (HGT) cells to identify host factors involved in promoting or inhibiting HuNoV replication. We observed that an interferon (IFN)-cured population of replicon-harboring HGT cells (HGT-Cured) was enhanced in their ability to replicate transfected HuNoV RNA compared to parental HGT cells, suggesting that differential gene expression in HGT-Cured cells created an environment favoring norovirus replication. Microarrays were used to identify genes differentially regulated in HGT-NV and HGT-Cured compared to parental cells. We found that IFN lambda receptor (IFNLR1) expression was highly reduced in HGT-NV and HGT-Cured cells. While all three cell lines responded to exogenous IFN-β by inducing interferon-stimulated genes, HGT-NV and HGT-Cured cells failed to respond to exogenous IFN-λ. Methylation-sensitive PCR showed that an increased methylation of the IFNLR1 promoter and inhibition of DNA methyltransferase activity partially reactivated IFNLR1 expression in HGT-NV and HGT-Cured cells, indicating that host adaptation occurred via epigenetic reprogramming. Moreover, IFNLR1 ectopic expression rescued response to IFN-λ and restricted HuNoV replication in HGT-NV cells. We conclude that type III IFN is important in inhibiting HuNoV replication in vitro and that the loss of IFNLR1 enhances replication of HuNoV. This study unravels for the first time epigenetic reprogramming of the interferon lambda receptor as a new mechanism of cellular adaptation during long-term RNA virus replication and shows that an endogenous level of interferon lambda signaling is able to control human norovirus replication.IMPORTANCE Noroviruses are one of the most widespread causes of gastroenteritis, yet no suitable therapeutics are available for their control. Moreover, to date, knowledge of the precise cellular processes that control the replication of the human norovirus remains ill defined. Recent work has highlighted the importance of type III interferon (IFN) responses in the restriction of viruses that infect the intestine. Here, we analyzed the adaptive changes required to support long-term replication of noroviruses in cell culture and found that the receptor for type III IFN is decreased in its expression. We confirmed that this decreased expression was driven by epigenetic modifications and that cells lacking the type III IFN receptor are more permissive for norovirus replication. This work provides new insights into key host-virus interactions required for the control of noroviruses and opens potential novel avenues for their therapeutic control.
Keywords: DNA methylation; epigenetic reprogramming; human norovirus replicon; interferon lambda receptor; microarrays.
Copyright © 2019 Arthur et al.