Clinical and animal studies suggest a role for female hormones in preventing or ameliorating rheumatoid arthritis and, on the other hand, increasing the risk for systemic lupus erythematosus. However, the body of the epidemiological studies do not support these observations except for one study showing that hormonal replacement therapy increases the risk of developing systemic lupus-erythematosus. Counseling of women on the use of oral contraceptives or postmenopausal hormones should include a discussion of these risks and benefits in addition to the risks of cardiovascular disease, uterine and breast cancer, and osteoporosis.